Methodology
How each calculator gets from what you enter to the figure it shows: which rules it applies, in what order, how it rounds, and what it assumes when you leave a field alone.
Paychecks: federal withholding and FICA
A paycheck is worked out the way an employer's payroll system does it, not the way a tax return does. Federal income tax uses the percentage method tables in IRS Publication 15-T for 2026, applied to the pay period you choose, with the answers you give on Form W-4: filing status, the multiple-jobs box, dependents, other income, deductions and extra withholding. Pre-tax deductions such as a traditional 401(k), an HSA or health premiums come off first, each only from the taxes it is exempt from.
Social Security is withheld at the employee rate up to the year's wage base and Medicare on all wages, with the Additional Medicare Tax once year-to-date wages pass the threshold, as an employer must withhold it. To get the wage base and the threshold right mid-year, the calculator runs every paycheck from January, so the figure for a given paycheck reflects the year so far.
Bonuses use the flat supplemental rate unless you choose the aggregate method. The tax refund estimator is different: it works out the year's actual tax the way Form 1040 does, with the standard deduction, the 2026 deductions for tips, overtime, seniors and car loan interest, the child tax credit and the earned income credit, then compares it with what was withheld.
Every amount is kept in whole cents and every rate in basis points, so no figure drifts through repeated rounding. Each result has a Show the math panel listing every step with the rule it came from.
Paychecks: each state's withholding
State tax follows each state's own employer withholding instructions, with the state's own certificate where it has one, and its payroll levies (disability, paid family leave, unemployment, long-term care) at their employee rates and wage bases. The withholding figure is an estimate of what an employer takes out each payday, not the tax you will owe on your return; where the two use different rates, the state's page says so. Each state below links to its own page, which shows its tables at nine salaries.
Alabama
On the tax return, Alabama taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 5%. Withholding on the highest slice of pay works out to 3.15%, below the return's rate, because Alabama lets you deduct the federal income tax you pay; so withholding as a share of pay levels off, at 4.0% of $150,000, instead of rising toward 5%. Local income taxes: Birmingham. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Alaska
Alaska does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Payroll levies: AK Unemployment Insurance (employee) (0.5% of wages up to $54,200 a year). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Arizona
On the tax return, Arizona taxes income at a single rate of 2.5%. Withholding works differently: each employee picks a percentage of pay on Form A-4, and with no form on file the employer withholds 2%. The return settles the difference. Reciprocity with California, Indiana, Oregon and Virginia. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Arkansas
On the tax return, Arkansas taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 3.7%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 3.7% too. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
California
On the tax return, California taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 13.3%. Employers withhold with a separate table that goes up to 14.63% on the highest slice of pay. That is a withholding rate, not the rate on your return: any excess comes back as a refund when you file. Payroll levies: CA SDI (State Disability Insurance) (1.3% of all wages, with no yearly cap). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Colorado
On the tax return, Colorado taxes income at a single rate of 4.4%. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the allowances or exemptions claimed on the state withholding form. Payroll levies: CO FAMLI (employee) (0.44% of wages up to $184,500 a year). Local income taxes: Denver. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Connecticut
On the tax return, Connecticut taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 6.99%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 6.99% too. Payroll levies: CT Paid Leave (employee) (0.5% of wages up to $184,500 a year). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Delaware
On the tax return, Delaware taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 6.6%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 6.6% too. Payroll levies: DE Paid Leave (employee) (0.4% of wages up to $184,500 a year). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
The District of Columbia
On the tax return, the District of Columbia taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 10.75%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 10.75% too. Reciprocity with Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Florida
Florida does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Georgia
On the tax return, Georgia taxes income at a single rate of 4.99%. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the allowances or exemptions claimed on the state withholding form. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Hawaii
On the tax return, Hawaii taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 11%. Employers' withholding tables stop at 7.9% on the highest slice of pay, so a high earner can owe more when filing; the state withholding form lets you ask for extra withholding to cover it. Payroll levies: HI TDI (Temporary Disability Insurance, employee share) (0.5% of wages, up to $7.50 a week). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Idaho
On the tax return, Idaho taxes income at a single rate of 5.3% on income above a band that is not taxed at all. Employers withhold at the same rate, on all taxable wages, with no allowances. Rules checked October 21, 2026.
Illinois
On the tax return, Illinois taxes income at a single rate of 4.95%. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the allowances or exemptions claimed on the state withholding form. Reciprocity with Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan and Wisconsin. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Indiana
On the tax return, Indiana taxes income at a single rate of 2.95%. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the allowances or exemptions claimed on the state withholding form. Local income taxes: 92 jurisdictions, chosen in the calculator. Reciprocity with Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Iowa
On the tax return, Iowa taxes income at a single rate of 3.8%. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the allowances or exemptions claimed on the state withholding form. Reciprocity with Illinois. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Kansas
On the tax return, Kansas taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 5.58%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 5.58% too. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Kentucky
On the tax return, Kentucky taxes income at a single rate of 3.5%. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the state's own deduction or credit, with no allowances to claim. Local income taxes: Lexington-Fayette County and Louisville Metro (Jefferson County). Reciprocity with Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia and Wisconsin. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Louisiana
On the tax return, Louisiana taxes income at a single rate of 3%. Employers withhold at a slightly higher flat rate, 3.09%, so withholding runs a little ahead of the tax; the return settles the difference. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Maine
On the tax return, Maine taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 9.15%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 9.15% too. Payroll levies: ME Paid Family and Medical Leave (employee) (0.5% of wages up to $184,500 a year). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Maryland
On the tax return, Maryland taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 6.5%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 6.5% too. Local income taxes: 24 jurisdictions, chosen in the calculator. Reciprocity with the District of Columbia, Pennsylvania, Virginia and West Virginia. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Massachusetts
On the tax return, Massachusetts taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 9%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 9% too. Payroll levies: MA Paid Family and Medical Leave (employee) (0.46% of wages up to $184,500 a year). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Michigan
On the tax return, Michigan taxes income at a single rate of 4.25%. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the allowances or exemptions claimed on the state withholding form. Local income taxes: 24 jurisdictions, chosen in the calculator. Reciprocity with Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Minnesota, Ohio and Wisconsin. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Minnesota
On the tax return, Minnesota taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 9.85%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 9.85% too. Payroll levies: MN Paid Leave (employee) (0.44% of wages up to $184,500 a year). Reciprocity with Michigan and North Dakota. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Mississippi
On the tax return, Mississippi taxes income at a single rate of 4% on income above an untaxed first band. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the allowances or exemptions claimed on the state withholding form. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Missouri
On the tax return, Missouri taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 4.7%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 4.7% too. Local income taxes: Kansas City and St. Louis (city). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Montana
On the tax return, Montana taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 5.65%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 5.65% too. Reciprocity with North Dakota. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Nebraska
On the tax return, Nebraska taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 4.55%. Employers withhold with a separate table that goes up to 4.6% on the highest slice of pay. That is a withholding rate, not the rate on your return: any excess comes back as a refund when you file. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Nevada
Nevada does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
New Hampshire
New Hampshire does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
New Jersey
On the tax return, New Jersey taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 10.75%. Employers withhold with a separate table that goes up to 11.8% on the highest slice of pay. That is a withholding rate, not the rate on your return: any excess comes back as a refund when you file. Payroll levies: NJ Unemployment Insurance (worker) (0.3825% of wages up to $44,800 a year); NJ Workforce Development / Supplemental Workforce Fund (worker) (0.0425% of wages up to $44,800 a year); NJ Temporary Disability Insurance (worker) (0.19% of wages up to $171,100 a year); NJ Family Leave Insurance (worker) (0.23% of wages up to $171,100 a year). Reciprocity with Pennsylvania. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
New Mexico
On the tax return, New Mexico taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 5.9%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 5.9% too. Payroll levies: New Mexico workers' compensation fee (employee) ($2.25 a calendar quarter, whatever you earn). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
New York
On the tax return, New York taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 10.9%. Employers withhold with a separate table that goes up to 11.1% on the highest slice of pay. That is a withholding rate, not the rate on your return: any excess comes back as a refund when you file. Payroll levies: NY Paid Family Leave (0.432% of wages, up to $411.91 a year); NY Disability Benefits (DBL) (0.5% of wages, up to $0.60 a week). Local income taxes: New York City and Yonkers. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
North Carolina
On the tax return, North Carolina taxes income at a single rate of 3.99%. Employers withhold at a slightly higher flat rate, 4.09%, so withholding runs a little ahead of the tax; the return settles the difference. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
North Dakota
On the tax return, North Dakota taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 2.5%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 2.5% too. Reciprocity with Minnesota and Montana. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Ohio
On the tax return, Ohio taxes income at a single rate of 2.75% on nonbusiness income above an untaxed first band. Employers withhold with a separate table that goes up to 3.4% on the highest slice of pay. That is a withholding rate, not the rate on your return: any excess comes back as a refund when you file. Local income taxes: Columbus, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Toledo, Akron and Dayton. Reciprocity with Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Oklahoma
On the tax return, Oklahoma taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 4.5%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 4.5% too. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Oregon
On the tax return, Oregon taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 9.9%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 9.9% too. Payroll levies: Paid Leave Oregon (employee) (0.6% of wages up to $184,500 a year); Oregon statewide transit tax (0.1% of all wages, with no yearly cap); Oregon Workers' Benefit Fund (employee) (0.9 cents for every hour worked (40 hours a week is assumed for a salary)). Local income taxes: Multnomah County (Portland) and Portland Metro area outside Multnomah County. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Pennsylvania
On the tax return, Pennsylvania taxes income at a single rate of 3.07%. Employers withhold at the same rate, on all taxable wages, with no allowances. Payroll levies: PA Unemployment Compensation (employee) (0.07% of all wages, with no yearly cap). Local income taxes: 2620 jurisdictions, chosen in the calculator. Reciprocity with Indiana, Maryland, New Jersey, Ohio, Virginia and West Virginia. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Rhode Island
On the tax return, Rhode Island taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 5.99%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 5.99% too. Payroll levies: RI TDI (Temporary Disability / Caregiver Insurance) (1.1% of wages up to $100,000 a year). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
South Carolina
On the tax return, South Carolina taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 6%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 6% too. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
South Dakota
South Dakota does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Tennessee
Tennessee does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Texas
Texas does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Utah
On the tax return, Utah taxes income at a single rate of 4.45%, less a taxpayer credit that shrinks as income rises, so lower salaries pay a smaller share. Employers withhold at the same rate, after the state's own deduction or credit, with no allowances to claim. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Vermont
On the tax return, Vermont taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 8.75%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 8.75% too. Payroll levies: VT Child Care Contribution (employee share) (0.11% of all wages, with no yearly cap). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Virginia
On the tax return, Virginia taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 5.75%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 5.75% too. Reciprocity with the District of Columbia, Kentucky, Maryland, Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Washington
Washington does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Payroll levies: WA Paid Family & Medical Leave (employee) (0.8072% of wages up to $184,500 a year); WA Cares Fund (long-term care) (0.58% of all wages, with no yearly cap). Rules checked October 19, 2026.
West Virginia
On the tax return, West Virginia taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 4.58%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 4.58% too. Reciprocity with Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Virginia. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Wisconsin
On the tax return, Wisconsin taxes income in brackets, and the rate on the highest bracket is 7.65%. Employers' withholding tables use the same rates, so the highest slice of pay is withheld at 7.65% too. Reciprocity with Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky and Michigan. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Wyoming
Wyoming does not tax wages, so nothing is withheld for state income tax. Rules checked October 19, 2026.
Local income taxes
City, county and school district taxes are applied for the place you live and the place you work, using each locality's own rules: a flat rate on wages, a share of state tax, a monthly or yearly head tax, or tiers by income. Where a locality taxes residents and commuters at different rates, the calculator applies the right one for your answers, and where one locality credits another (Ohio cities, Pennsylvania's earned income tax), it follows the credit rules. Pennsylvania's earned income tax uses the state's own register of every political subdivision and applies the higher of the home and work rates, as Act 32 requires.
Mortgages and home buying
Monthly payment and amortization
The principal and interest payment is the standard annuity formula, rounded half-up to the cent. Each month's interest is the balance times the monthly rate, rounded to the cent; the final payment is whatever balance remains plus its interest, so the principal column adds up to the loan exactly. Extra payments go straight to principal in the month you enter them.
Property tax, insurance and PMI
Property tax is the price times the effective rate for the state or county you pick, divided by twelve. Private mortgage insurance is charged when the loan is more than 80% of the price, at the yearly rate you enter on the original loan, and stops once the scheduled balance reaches 78% of the original value, the automatic cancellation point in the Homeowners Protection Act. Asking the lender to cancel earlier at 80%, which the law also allows, is not modeled, because it depends on the lender and on your payment history.
Affordability
The home affordability calculator finds the highest whole-dollar price whose full monthly payment (principal, interest, tax, insurance, PMI and HOA) fits the limit you choose: housing at 28% of gross income with all debts at 36%, a stretch limit of 43% for all debts, or housing and other debts within 25% of take-home pay. These ratios are common lending rules of thumb, not law and not a lender's decision.
Refinancing and rent versus buy
Refinance break-even is the first month after which keeping the new loan, counting payments made, cash paid at closing and the balance still owed, costs no more than keeping the old one, and stays that way to the end of the period you set. A lower payment alone does not count as breaking even. Rent versus buy follows both paths month by month with the same cash: whichever costs less that month invests the difference at the return you choose, and the comparison is the wealth each side holds at the end, after selling costs.
Budget, debt and growth
Debt payoff pays every minimum, then puts the rest of your monthly budget on one debt: the smallest balance first (snowball) or the highest rate first (avalanche). When a debt is paid off its minimum rolls onto the next, because the budget stays the same. Interest accrues monthly at the APR divided by twelve.
Compound interest grows the balance month by month at the effective monthly rate implied by the compounding you choose, so deposits made at any point earn the right amount. Balances are carried unrounded and rounded to the cent when shown. The 401(k) and IRA projection holds your own contributions to the 2026 limits, catch-up included by age, and spreads them through the year, so each year's contributions earn about half a year of growth.
Data and how often it changes
Mortgage rates
Freddie Mac, 30-Year Fixed Rate Mortgage Average in the United States [MORTGAGE30US], retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Figures as of October 15, 2026, retrieved October 20, 2026. Weekly, after Freddie Mac publishes its survey on Thursday.
A national average for borrowers with strong credit and a sizable down payment. Your own rate depends on credit, loan size, points and lender. Shown for illustration, never as a quote.
Property tax by county
U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates 2020-2024, tables B25103 (median real estate taxes paid) and B25077 (median value), table-based Summary File. Figures as of December 31, 2024, retrieved October 20, 2026. Yearly, when the Census Bureau releases the next five-year estimates (usually December).
Effective rate = median real estate taxes paid / median home value, from the ACS 5-year 2020-2024. It reflects what owners actually pay after exemptions and caps, not a rate in law. Top-coded values and wide margins of error are flagged on the county tables, and areas without published figures are left out.
Regional price levels
U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Price Parities by state and metropolitan area, all items, 2024 (US = 100). Figures as of December 31, 2024, retrieved October 20, 2026. Yearly, when the Bureau of Economic Analysis publishes new parities.
An index of everyday prices, rent included, against the national average. It compares places; it does not predict any one household's costs.
Median wage by state
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics, May 2025 state estimates, all occupations, median annual wage. Figures as of May 31, 2025, retrieved October 21, 2026. Yearly, when the Bureau of Labor Statistics publishes the May estimates (usually in spring).
The median annual wage across all occupations. It is used for worked examples, not as a statement about any job.
Sales tax on vehicles
State department-of-revenue sales and use tax pages, one source URL per state below. Figures as of October 20, 2026, retrieved October 20, 2026. Checked monthly with the rules; changed when a state changes its rate or trade-in treatment.
State rates only. City and county sales taxes add to them in many places, so the auto loan calculator lets you enter your own combined rate.
Tax rules are checked against their sources every month and whenever a state announces a change. The site's oldest check date is October 19, 2026; every page shows the date for the rules it uses.
What the calculators leave out
- Garnishments, union dues and other deductions your employer takes after tax, unless you enter them.
- Itemized deductions and most credits on the paycheck side; the refund estimator covers the common ones.
- Local taxes in places not listed in the calculator. Pick "Other / not listed" and add the rate yourself.
- Lender fees, points and rate locks. Mortgage rates are national weekly averages, for illustration.
If a result looks wrong, use Report a problem under it; the scenario comes with your message. The corrections policy explains what happens next.